Terrestrial Fauna
The wildlife of Palestine is composed of invertebrates, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. The lowest diversity is found to be in amphibians, while the highest is estimated within invertebrates and other micro animals. Fauna in geographical Palestine consists of 67 families of birds of which 45 are of local breeds and, 33 families of mammals, 93 species and subspecies of reptiles (Ishtayia, 1995), and 6 different families of amphibians. Each wild type constitutes one important element of the balanced ecosystem. Palestinian wildlife is distributed throughout 16 zoo-geographical areas which indicate its variation (Atallah, 1987).
Large scale, unplanned human activities are having a severe impact on Palestinian biodiversity. Data on Palestinian wildlife and terrestrial fauna is lacking in many areas and it appears that many species are disappearing before they can be documented. A lack of human resources and capacity is hindering the management and conservation of Palestinian biodiversity. Many of the species appearing in the historical record are now extinct or threatened. The main factors that led to the animal extinction are both natural and human caused. However, human actions have recently greatly increased the rate of extinction to levels that the nature cannot compensate. For example, 73 species of mammals and 120 species of birds became extinct between the years of 1801 and 1950. This high rate of extinction threatens the dynamic balance, which the nature enjoys with unpredictable consequences (Omar & Odeh).
To date there is no real scientific knowledge on the diversity of invertebrates in the Palestinian Territories. Little research has been conducted on the taxonomy, zoo-geography and ecology of these phyla. It is estimated that the number of invertebrate species in the Palestinian Territories is in excess of several thousand. These species are being impacted upon by large scale habitat destruction from settlements, forest cutting, overgrazing, unplanned urban development and mining and quarrying. Moreover, due to the importance of agriculture in the Palestinian economy, a large quantity of agro-chemicals is being used and this is expected to increase in the future. The agro-chemicals have major impacts on terrestrial invertebrates.
Threats and Impacts
As mentioned above this phylum is being impacted upon by extensive agriculture, forest cutting, overgrazing, unplanned urban development, settlements and other forms of habitat destruction. In addition, several species of terrestrial invertebrates are randomly destroyed by humans due to their natural features. The usage of pesticides, for example, against the insects reduces their numbers and thus their harmful attacks. Examples of harm invertebrates are: the Scorpions Nebo hirochunticus and Buthus quinestriatur and the Black Spider Latrodectus trecimiguttatus. However, it is felt that these impacts will affect only a small portion of this phylum and not lead to the extinction of many species.
Eight amphibian species have been recorded in the West Bank and Gaza. As with invertebrates, this information needs to be updated in terms of the current distribution and status. Amphibians in Palestine belong to two orders; (i) Caudata - Salamander; (ii) Salientta - Anura; six families: (i) Salamandridae; (ii) Bufonidae; (iii) Hylidae, (iv) Ranidae, (v) Discorglossidae, (vi) Pelobatidae; and six genera, five of which are important wetland species. Important species that exist in the West Bank and Gaza are the Salamander Salamandera maculosa (endangered) and the Triton Triton vittatus (rare). Three species of frogs and toads exist in the West Bank and Gaza. Below, Table (18), outlines the threatened amphibian species in West Bank and Gaza.
Threats and Impacts
Almost all amphibians in Palestine are endangered due to intensive farming, degradation of wetland habitats in the Dead Sea basin, Gaza Strip and fresh and brackish springs, rivers and wadi systems. Recently many swamps have been drained causing a great reduction in the abundance of many local species, as indicated in Table (18). This phenomenon is very obvious in Gaza Strip where the drying of the main wadis and intensive use of remaining water resources has not given amphibians much chance to exist. Loss of amphibian species and diversity has led to an increase in the number of disease vector insects such as mosquitoes.
In addition to the loss of wetland habitat, a significant portion of the remaining wetlands are exposed to untreated sewage water from human settlements and industrial activities and vegetation cover loss. This impact is deemed severe and is threatening some amphibian species with extinction.
Table 18: Status of Amphibians in the West Bank and Gaza
|
Species |
Status |
Habitat |
|
Bufo viridis |
Common/ Endangered |
Terrestrial |
|
Rana ridibunda |
Endangered |
Wetlands |
|
Hyla arborea savignyi |
Rare |
Wetlands and Forests |
|
Triton vittatus |
Endangered |
Wetlands |
Source: PEnA (Atrash, 1998)
Reptiles
Reptiles in Palestine are well distributed and show high diversity in species and habitats. The high diversity is due to the diverse bio-geographical, climatic, topographical and vegetation formations found throughout the PA. Recorded reptiles in Palestine include wetland, marine and desert species. Studies Of approximately 93 species of reptiles, six of them are aquatic and the rest are terrestrial (Werner, 1988; Ishtayia, 1995). They are presently represented by two orders, order Chelonia with turtles, and order Squamata, including lizards and snakes. One extinct species is the Nile Crocodile. This important predator used to inhabit the Jordan River and its western tributaries. Reptiles assume an important role in the ecosystem, as they are the main source of food for predators such as carnivores and local and migratory raptors (e.g., kestrels, buzzards and eagles).
The highest distribution of reptiles in Palestine is observed in the arid and semiarid Mediterranean and Saharo Arabian zones. Statistics show that approximately 47 per cent are located in northern Palestine and 39 per cent in the south. The remainders are dispersed throughout the country.
Threats and Impacts
Many reptilian species in Palestine are considered threatened or on the verge of extinction. This is due mainly to; intensive agricultural practices, overgrazing, vegetation cover loss, mistreatment of habitat, illegal trade, unplanned human development, transportation corridors and soil and habitat degradation.
Snakes and vipers have felt the largest impacts. The Palestinian Cobra and Vipers especially Vipera palestina, are under severe pressure due to direct killing by people, although they could play an important role in pest control of smaller rodents. Many reptiles are observed dead on roads and highwor killed as a result of mining such as the sand mining in Gaza Strip and its effect on the turtles inhabiting the beach. Several species became recently extinct as Blanus stranch, Ripera lebetina, Crocodylus niloticus, Discoglossus nigriventir, and several other species are endangered. Illegal trade in several species occurs including the; Dessert Monitor Varanus griseus, Spiny -tailed Lizard Uromastix aegyptius microlepis, Greek Tortoise Testudo graeca and Chameleon Chameleo chameleo. Three of these species are listed under CITES. Marine turtles are under threat from illegal trade, hunting and unsustainable fishing practices. One wetland species is highly endangered due to wetland degradation (i.e., draining for agriculture) is the Diamond Water Snake Natrix tesselata.
Source: PEnA
Source: PEnA
Birds
Source: PEnA
Four hundred and seventy species of birds have been recorded lately in Palestine. Belonging to 206 genesis, 65 families and 21 orders. Of which 80 per cent are migratory birds; 50 per cent are waterfowl and 30 per cent are raptors (Paz, 1987). Many migratory raptors are globally threatened species such as the Lesser kestrel Falco naumanni, the summer visitor little Bustard Tetrax tetrax and the winter visitors, Corncrake Crex crex , Huobara Bustard Chlamydotus undulata and Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga. The Bonnelli's Eagle Hieraaetus fascitatus is a globally threatened, resident species. The Dead Sea Sparrow Passer moabticus is a restricted species, indigenous to the Dead Sea Basin.
Located as a land bridge between three continents, Palestine is an important migratory route for north Palearctic birds. Approximately 500 million birds pass through the Jordan Rift Valley each year. Many disperse to the wadis and plains of the West Bank and Gaza strip. Passerines and warblers prefer to migrate through the forests and dense vegetation cover of Palestine than to pass within the narrow corridor of the Jordan Valley. Some 200,000 Garganey Anas qerquedula and A. crecca (Photo (5)), 41,000 waders, mainly Little Stint Calidris minuta, Avocet Recurvirostra avosetta and Sanderling Calidris alba, and some 200 000 raptors, are recorded to pass along the Gaza Coastline, as well as some 26 500 specimens of herons and 20 000 terns are observed annually.
BirdLife International has defined 395 Important Bird Areas (IBAs) in the Middle East, 5 of, which are located in Palestine. Much of the data related to birds and their habitats in Palestine were compiled under the Israeli IBAs, therefore it is necessary to update the status and distribution of birds and their habitat in Palestine alone. Palestine is considered as one of the favourite countries for nature tourism and bird watching due to the diversity and different species occurrence in diverse sites.
Threats and Impacts
Birds and their habitats in Palestine are subject to a variety of threats and impacts. Namely; urban expansion and settlements, lack of land-use policies, illegal hunting, human persecution, degradation of vegetation cover and forest resources, degradation of habitat, including wetlands, steppe land and migratory grounds and routes, decrease in prey and food resources, lack of solid waste management, lack of tourism management and unsustainable agricultural practices (i.e., agro-chemicals). Some of Bird Species of a great interest in Palestine are listed in the IUCN red list, as indicated in Table (19).
Many species such as raptors and waterfowl are threatened due to habitat destruction in the Jordan valley and desert. Waterfowl visiting and inhabiting the Wadi Gaza wetland face severe impacts stemming from a lack of liquid waste management. In order to benefit from ecotourism and nature tourism, it is important that the proper management of important bird areas be initiated as soon as possible.
Table 19: Some of the threatened bird species present in Palestine
|
Scientific Name
|
English Name |
Status |
|
Aquila heliaca |
Imperial Eagle |
Rare |
|
Chlamydotis undulata |
Houbara Bustard |
Vulnerable |
|
Crex crex |
Corn Crake |
Rare |
|
Falco naumanni |
Lesser Kestrel |
Rare |
|
Haliaeetus albicilla |
White-tailed Eagle |
Vulnerable |
|
Marmaronetta angustirostris |
Marbled Teal |
Vulnerable |
|
Phalacrocorax pygmeus |
Halietor Pygmeus |
Rare |
|
Tetrax tetrax |
Little Bustard |
Rare |
|
Carduelis carduelis |
Goldfinch |
Threatened |
|
Vanillas gregarius |
Chellusia Gregaria |
Rare |
Source: IUCN, 1993.
Currently there are 95 mammalian species in the West Bank and Gaza comprising 33 families, 28 of which are bat species. This number does not include marine mammals in Gaza Strip. Data related to the distribution, classification, and zoo-geography of mammals in Palestine needs to be updated.
The above-mentioned numbers of families and mammalian species shows relatively high diversity in comparison to other countries in Arabia. This fact is due to several features such as: geographical location between three continents, the high diversity in soil and climate elements. This in turn has helped species of different origins to settle and inhabit Palestine. The distribution of most mammals in Palestine depends on the distribution of their zoogeographic subregions. Seventy eight percent of Palestinian mammals that are described as widely distributed, exist mainly in the Mediterranean territory of Palestine.
Connecting three continents together and thus serving as a bridge between them many mammals have travelled naturally for thousand of years through this region. In Palestine as in the case of its neighbouring countries, it is into observe species from the same families, though different origins, competing for habitat and prey. For example, the European Badger Meles meles and the African Honey Badger Millivora capensis. Mammals of Palestine inhabit different and diverse habitats such mountainous, forests, steppe, marine wetland and even the lowest spot on Earth the Dead Sea Basin.
Still many higher mammals enjoy Palestine's diverse habitats, for example: Striped Hyena, Syrian Wolf Canis lupus syriacus, two different species of Gazelles Gazella dorcas and G. arabica, wild cats Felis silvestris, and F. chaus. The only mammal endemic in the Gaza Strip, on the other hand, is the Buxton’s Jird Meriones sacramenti, originated from Saharo-Arabian desert belt, and found in the sand dunes of the southern coastal plains of the Negev and the Gaza Strip.
Photo
4: The threatened Wolf Canis
lupus syriacus.
Source: PEnA
Threats and Impacts
Mammals of Palestine suffer from a variety of threats. Almost all of the higher mammals are on the Red Data List as threatened, extinct or rare. Seven species of mammals have been extinct in Palestine, for example, the Cheetah Acynonyx jupatus, Syrian Brown Bear, Ursus arctos syriacus, Mesopotamian Fallow Deer Dama mesopatomica, and Roe Deer Capreulus capreulus. These species existed in Palestine less than 50 years ago. In addition wolfs and hyenas are hunted and persecuted by farmers and Bedouins concerned with their livestock. Nowadays, there are only 200 hyenas inhabiting Palestine.
The West Bank and Gaza contain 114 families of flora with 2,483 species (PIALES, 1996). The most dominant families are the Compositae with 96 genera and 260 species, Gramineae with 87 genera and 198 species, Leguminaceae with 62 genera and 268 species, Crucifera with 63 genera and 124 species, Labiatae which is famous as a medicinal plants, with 23 genera and 99 species, Lilaceae known for its beautiful flowers, with 23 genera and 97 species, Trifolium which is used as a forage plant contains 40 species, Medicago genus contains 22 species, and Trigonella genus, which contains 18 species (Breigheeth, 1995).
Located at the meeting point between Eurasia and Africa, especially in the eastern southern corner of the Mediterranean sea, Palestine has a unique topography and ecosystems which encountered endemic plants that do not exist in other places in the world. This helped the introduction of pto coexist. Palestine is characterised by its unique variable ecosystems that encounter the different floral associations. The ecosystem in the West Bank is divided into four longitudinal belts as following:
- The Jordan valley which is dominated by Atriplex halimus, Sarcopoterium spinosum, Ziziphus spina-christi, Suaeda asphaltica, Anabsis setifera, Zilla spinosa, Prosopis farcta,and Calotropis procera.
- The Eastern Slopes Region which is dominated by Sarcopoterium spinosum, Majorana syriaca, Artemisia herbalba, Erynguim creticum, Orchis anatolicus, Ranunculus asiaticusa, Lotus peregrinus, Ononis natrix, and Capris spinosa.
- The Central High Lands which is dominated by Quercus calliprinos, Ceratonia siliqua, Pistacia palestina, Pistacia lentiscus, Sareapterium spinsum, Prosopis farcta, Inula viscosa, Phragmites australis, Moricandia nitens, and Convonlvolus oleifolium.
- The Semi-Coastal region, which is dominated by Sporobolus arenarius, Euphorbia perelis, Senecio vernalis, Thymelae hirsutum, and Lupinus palastinus.
- The Coastal Plain, on the other hand, constitutes the main ecosystem in Gaza
Strip where the class Salicornietea europaeae is dominant and contains
species like: Suaeda splendens, Salsola soda, Aster tripolium,
Atriplex hastata, and others. Also, the beaches are covered with a vegetation
association of the Ipomea stolonifera-Salsola kali, with species like:
Ipomea stolonifera, Agropyron junceum, Salsola kali, Euphorbia
peplis and Silene succulenta. On the steep dune cliffs, frontal dunes
and mobile sands, new species occur on the littoral zone up to considerable distances
inland. Ammopila arenaria and Tamarix nilotica are the major sand
and dune-fixating species, well able to survive in drifting sand.
In addition, the four plant geographical elements that exist in variable patterns (Map (2)), form another source of classification for the distribution of flora in Palestine. - The Mediterranean Territory covered with vegetation includes forests, maquis, garigue and batha (dwarf shrub formations) in which Quercus calliprinos and Pistaca palaestina are shown to be the dominant species. The local forests and maquis can be grouped as the Common Oak Forests, the Aleppo Pine Forests (Pinus halepensis), and the Carob and Mastic Pistacia Scrub Forests.
- The Irano-Turanian Territory (Oriental steppe) which covers the southern parts of the West Bank (Jerusalem desert, central Jordan Valley and adjacent steppes and rocky places facing the southern part of the Jordan Valley). This area is composed of different associations such as the Zizyphetum loti association, the Retameto-Rhudetum association and the Artemision herba-alba association in which Zizyphus lotus, Retama raetum and Artemisia herba-alba are the most common members of these associations respectively.
- The Saharo-Arabian Territory which expands from the Jerusalem desert to the south of Negev and dominant with Zygophylletum dumosi and Suaedetum asphaltica.
- The Sudanian Penetration Territory which expands over Wadi Araba, Dead Sea area and the south of Jordan Valley and dominant with some plant associations such as Haloxyletea saliconici (Phoenix dactylifera) and Acacitea tortilis (Zizyphus spina-christi and Acacia tortilis).
- Vascular plants in the Gaza Strip mainly belong to the Saharo-Arabian, Mediterranean, and Irano-Turanian phytogeographic regions. The main plant geographical element in Gaza Strip is the Coastal Zone on Sandy soils where the vegetation mainly consists of associations of the Retamtalia raetami palaestinae, Zyziphus spina-christi, Hammadetum scopariae planicolum, Tamarix nilotica, Artemisia monosperma.
The flora of Palestine includes 149 endemic species (6% of the total flora), of which 43% are found to be common, 27.5% are rare and 25.6% are very rare. Leguminaceae family for instance with its 268 species contains 21 endemics, while among 23 species of Iridaceae, eight are endemic (Zohary, 1962).
Half of Palestine’s endemic species are restricted to the Mediterranean Territory, a third to the Irano-Turanian and only a sixth to the Saharo-Sindian territory. The Jordan Valley, with about 25 endemic species, is considered one of the main three centers of endemic species in Palestine including for example, 6 species of Tamarix.
The surveyed endemic species in the West Bank were estimated to be 51. Most of these endemics belong to the Compositae family that constitutes 21% of total endemics. Both Iridaceae and Boraginaceae contribute by 9.8% and Labiatae by 7.8% of the endemics. Around 12 species of the endemics were found to be very rare such as Iris lorteti, Alkana galilaea, Cephalaria tenella, Erodium subintegrifoli, Iphiona marismortui and Phlomis platystegia .
Source: PEnA
However, Endemic rare species exist mainly in the Dead Sea and lower Jordan Valley areas. In the West Bank, a total of 195 rare species are known to exist. Of these, only 127 species have been observed, where 78 rare species were located in Jerusalem wildereness, 57 species in Nablus highlands and 48 species in the Jerusalem highlands (Shmida, 1995).
Source: PEnA
The vegetation of Palestine comprises a considerable number of types differing from each other. The vegetal cover deduces a variety of plant formations ranging from dense forests to thin patches of desert herbs. The presence of such a variable plant formation of trees, shrubs and herbs that survive in different environmental conditions, indicates the diverse genetic background that they possess. There exist 60 species of natural trees and 90 species of bushes distributed all over Palestine.
Source: PEnA
These plant communities and associations that inhabit Palestine can be grouped and briefed into the following vegetal landscapes: Coniferous Forests Deciduous, Broad-leaved Oak Forests, Evergreen Park-Maquis, Deciduous Steppe-Maquis and Steppe-Forests (Pistachia atlantica, Crataegus azarolus, and Amygdalus communis), Decicuous Thermophillous Scrub (Predominatly Ziziphus lotus), Halophytic Forests (Tamarix spp. and Suaeda spp.), Riparian Woods (Salix spp., Populus spp.), Savannah Forest (tropical trees: Ziziphus spina-christi, Moringa aptera and Salvadora persica), Mediterranean Batha and Garigue (Cistus, Phlomis, Salvia, and Thymus), Dwarf Shrub Steppes (Artemisia herba-alba, Noea mucronata, and Helianthemum spp.), Leaf and Stem Succulent Dwarf Shrub Formation (Salsola spp. and Atriplex spp) and Rush and Reed Vegetation .