Threats to Biodiversity in Palestine

Nature creates a balance within itself by adapting the environmental changes that happen for one reason or another. But, if there were drastic changes in the ecosystem disciplines, nature cannot return to the same balance, and thus resulting in a loss of biodiversity and its rooting habitats. Ecosystem changes, which can be a result of a wide array of complex factors, can greatly reduce the number of species, and lead to desertification, one of alarming key issues in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. As a result of the pressures imposed on the wildlife in Palestine, this important source has lost many of its species and many are threatened to be extinct. Pressures on wildlife could be as a result of human activities such as urbanization, land confiscation to build more Israeli colonies and military areas, and agricultural and industrial activities. The changes in the ecosystem in Palestine could be attributed to the following factors:

 

Map 6: Agro-ecological Zones and Rainfall in the West Bank

 

Succession of Civilizations

Throughout the history of Palestine, humans have contributed most to the damage of the sensitive balance of nature systems. Each civilization that inhabited this area fought over land and has exploited the natural resources found here. Old Testament references indicate that the cutting of forests in Palestine began centuries ago, a practice which has continued ever since with varying degrees of intensity. Canaanites, Hebrews, Romans, Byzantines, Arabs, Crusaders, Mamluks, Turks, British mandate and Israeli occupation have all played their role. Thousands of forested trees have been cut to provide cleared areas for construction or build railways, or burning for fuel. Many species have been hunted to extinction. For example, most of the trees in the West Bank were uprooted by the Turks for building railways, constructing buildings and exporting wood; and later by Israelis for building colonies and by-pass roads. These human activities have contributed greatly to desertification of the land and loss of species, all accelerating the changes in related ecosystems.

The destruction of the vegetative cover by human was a slow and selective process, which depends both on human’s ability to overcome natural obstacles and on the tools of destruction at disposal. Damage was done to habitats in four ways: cutting of wood for industry and fuel; grazing by goats and sheep; clearing of forest areas for agriculture; and forest fires, whether planned or accidental. As a result, many animals disappeared from the land, which they were once plentiful. The ostrich, cheetah, lion (the last ones killed 800 years ago during the Crusaders), Syrian bear, crocodiles, and several kinds of deer are all casualties to human encroachment.

Wood was used not only for timber and the manufacture of agricultural tools, but also for domestic and commercial fuel, i.e., charcoal production. This involved extremely heavy damage to forests. Until the last decade, charcoal was extensively used. The environs of Jerusalem and Hebron which were the centers of charcoal production and marketing, have been completely denuded of forest vegetation.

The adjacent loessial plains and the interdune depressions for the older kurkar ridges in Gaza Strip, for example, were mainly used for rainfed agriculture and grazing. Especially during eras of great prosperity (e.g. Philistine, Hellenistic and Mamluk / Ottoman) man has changed the natural habitats considerably through the cultivation of crops and grazing of cattle. With the growing importance of Gaza City and Khan Younis during the Ottoman period (1250-1914) the growing sedentary population expanded their agricultural activities even further. Large date palm groves were planted, next to vegetable gardens and fruit orchards. The dune landscape was mainly used for collecting firewood, plants and fruits, grazing and for hunting.

The outcome of man’s activities on vegetation through the ages can be summed up as follows:

Population dynamics

The increase of population density on a fixed basis of land can be directly responsible for the loss of biodiversity, as each new person requires food, water, fuel, and other resources which are extracted from the natural environment. In many developing countries, including the West Bank and Gaza Strip, the need for natural resources already exceeds the availability, the result being human malnutrition and poverty, leading into a spiral environmental degradation.

Photo 12: Pollution and mismanagement of Natural Habitats in Palestine

Source: PEnA

In the West Bank and Gaza Strip, the current population growth places a high pressure on the natural ecosystems and biodiversity. The population growth rate in the West Bank is approximately 3.5%, and 3.8% in Gaza Strip, leading to fast increases in population size. The growing population will have no choice but to survive on the scarce resources available to them, causing a major threat to the small natural areas in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Fast population growth is associated with fast conversion of land to agricultural uses, i.e. a heavy pressure on natural habitats. A good example is Bethlehem City. Bethlehem was known for its green environment and most houses were surrounded by large gardens containing different varieties of herbs, shrubs and trees. Nowadays, only 17% of its territory is still covered with vegetation. This is the result of unregulated expansion of the built environment, the military areas and bases (closed to the local people), the Israeli colonies, and infrastructures such as by-pass roads.

Another example is Gaza strip, which is considered one of the most densely populated areas in the World. The most drastic changes occurred after 1948, and later in 1967, when a large influx of Palestinian refugees transformed the Strip into a very crowded place. This left deep traces on the landscape, natural resources and vegetation of the area. Today, hardly any natural undisturbed vegetation exists in the area (see the Gaza Profile). In addition, the high population density and intensive land use do not leave much opportunity for wildlife. Apart from rodents and small insectivorous mammals, such as hedgehog and shrews, wild mammals are hard to spot and may even be absent altogether. In the past, the Strip has always been a populated area, frequently crossed by caravans, armies and travellers. The hinterland of the Sinai and Negev was likely to account for wandering specimens of wildlife such as Dorcas Gazelles, Striped Hyena, and Wild Boars entering the Gaza Strip.

Pollution

Many pollutants are significantly damaging to wildlife, such as heavy metals, radioactive isotopes, and long lasting products such as chlorinated hydrocarbons, detergents, plastics, solid and industrial wastes, and pesticides. Non-biodegradable plastics are used in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, many of these materials end up as litter strewn throughout the urban and natural areas. The use of plastic in agriculture is wide spread in the Jordan valley, where farmers use plastic green houses and plastic sheeting to transpiration. Plastic is eaten by animals, where many grazing animals, such as sheep and goats, have been known to die while grazing. Heavy metals can readily poison plants, particularly when soils are highly acidic.

Air pollutants can significantly impact plant and wildlife, for example, one of the most problematic air pollutants is dust originated from quarries and stone cutting factories. Many quarries and stone cutting factories are located near agricultural land. Dust is accumulated at the plants and on soil clogging the pores of soil and leading to the death of plants. An example is the white dust covering the whole green land in Wadi Sa’ir in Hebron. Also, dense vehicular traffic causes high nitrogen oxides (NO_X) concentration, especially in the heavily populated urban centres. Increased motorization has an adverse impact on agriculture, vegetation, and animals specially that the disposed chemicals are very toxic to plants and animals. Industrial wastewater is another dangerous pollutant, for example the textile factories in Bethlehem dispose their industrial wastewater in cesspits that are frequently emptied onto olive planted areas, ending with coloured soils surrounding the roots of the trees.

Photo 13: Sewage flowing in wadis

Source: PEnA

Many of the non-biodegradable plastics end up as litter strewn throughout urban and natural areas. The development of irrigated agricultural activities, especially intensive protected cultivation, has resulted in the extensive usage of plastic houses, plastic tunnels (low and high), soil fumigation and soil mulching. As a result, the annual amount of plastic solid wastes have increased. Plastic houses and high plastic tunnels are used most extensively in Tulkarm and Jenin districts, covering approximately 500 and 80 hectares respectively.

Low plastic tunnels and open irrigated vegetables are mainly dominant in the Jordan Valley, and covering areas of approximately 720 and 5,200 hectares respectively. The plastics used for soil mulching and low tunnels may only be used for one season, while plastics used for high tunnels and greenhouses may last 2-5 years. Accordingly, the total amount of agricultural plastic waste in the West Bank is estimated at 3,300 tons/year. Part of this waste is unrecoverable and remains in the soil, forming a physical barrier to the water movement. The remaining plastic waste is collected by farmers and burned at the farm side, causing serious air pollution. Plastics do not break down into dissolved elements, and thus are often eaten by animals. Many grazing animals, such as sheep and goats, have been known to die from eating plastic while grazing.

An ARIJ survey which surveyed 415 farmers in the Jordan Valley and the northern area of the West Bank, has shown that approximately 88% of the farmers with irrigated fields collect and burn the used plastic on the field, releasing huge amounts of smoke into the atmosphere. Six percent of the farmers bury their plastic wastes in the soil, causing soil pollution by changing the physical characteristics of the soil. One percent of the farmers collect and dispose of plastic at the edges of their farms, where it is often ingested by livestock and may cause death. The remaining 5% of the farmers collect the plastic pieces and dispose it at the dumping site.

Unsustainable agricultural practices

Agricultural practices can have an immediate impact on species decline and extinction. The first people to arrive in ancient geographical Palestine were hunters and gathers. Their habits and numbers were such that they interfered little with their host ecosystem. But once they began settling and farming the fertile valleys and hillsides they encroached quite radically upon the ecological status quo. Cultivated crops replaced native vegetation as vines and orchards replaced native forest and shrub land and were maintained with terracing and man made irrigation channels and drainage ditches.

Later, population pressures caused the expansion of cultivated land, reducing wildlands where large varieties of species exist. Food and market demands have encouraged the use of “modern” agricultural practices employing increased use of pesticides and fertilizers. Locally adapted varieties of landraces with higher yielding improved varieties are encouraged especially those sell at higher prices such as fruit trees and vegetables of intensive cultivation. Witime, the genetic stock of crops eroded and agricultural production become based upon fewer and fewer genotypes. The evolving of mono-culture techniques has also a direct effect on wild species. Many useful genes have already been transferred from the crop wild gene pool to the cultivated species, especially those related to biotic and abiotic stress tolerance.

Pesticide Use

A total of 123 varieties of pesticides are currently used in the West Bank compared to 350 different types used in Israel and 334 in Jordan. Among these used in the West Bank, fourteen types have been banned or restricted by the World Health Organisation (WHO) for health and environmental reasons. Seven are among the "dirty dozen" such as DDT, Chlordane, Aldicarb, Lindane, Paraquat, Parathion and Pentachlorophenol. These are prohibited in farm use in most industrialized countries, but are still commonly used in the West Bank, Gaza Strip and in many other developing countries (Gabbay, 1992 and Saleh et al., 1995).

Approximately 302.7 tons of pesticides including sulfur and 200 tons of methyl bromide were used by farmers for the agricultural pest control. In addition, 4 tons of other types of pesticides were used by different municipalities for public health purposes (ARIJ, 1994). In the Gaza Strip, 100 tons of pesticides are used per year. This also includes the banned pesticides (Ishtayia,1995).

The total area treated with pesticides is 38,734.4 hectares, of which 74.7% is under rainfed farming and 25.3% under irrigated farming. Despite that, irrigated farming accounts for approximately 56.5% of the total pesticide consumption.

The largest area treated with pesticide is found in the Nablus district and the Jordan Valley. It comprises approximately 69% of the total treated area. One third of the rainfed treated area is concentrated in the Hebron district, of which 77% is cultivated with trees.

Table (36) indicates that Nablus district is the largest consumer of pesticide for irrigated farming, of which 94.5% is used in open field vegetables. The Hebron district uses more than half of the total quantity of pesticides used in rainfed agriculture. Approximately 72% of the quantity used is sulfur.

The total quantity of pesticides used in irrigated agriculture in Israel is estimated to be 9,600 tons (Table 36) with an average of 40 kg/hectare. This average is more or less equivalent to that used in the West Bank which is 32 kg/hectare. The total quantity of pesticides used in Israel is high since the irrigated area is 27 times greater than the irrigated area in the West Bank.

Table 36: A Comparison between the West Bank, Israel and Jordan in the Quantity of Pesticides, Pesticide Wastes and Fertilisers

	Palestine		Israel	Jordan
	West Bank	Gaza Strip
Irrigated area in hectares	10,159.3	13,950	240,000	76,950
Total quantity of pesticides used in irrigated area (tons).	371.1	201	9,600	------
Total quantity of pesticides used (tons) excluding methyl bromide.	302.7	182	-------	737
Methyl bromide(tons)	200	100	2,800	347
Fertilisers consumption (tons)	30,000	20,500	90,000	470,000
Number of pesticides used	123	--	350	334

Methyl Bromide

Methyl bromide is produced from the bromine found in natural mines and seawater. It is estimated that the Dead Sea contains approximately 1 billion tons of bromine, and supplies 73% of the world demand for bromine. Israel is the second major producer of methyl bromide in the world after the United Sates, using 2,800 tons of methyl bromide per year mostly for agricultural purposes (Gabbay, 1994 and Clark, 1994).

Methyl bromide is used intensively by farmers involved with irrigated agriculture in the West Bank. It makes up 54% of the total amount of pesticides used in irrigated farming and 39.7% of the estimated total pesticides used in the West Bank. The district of Tulkarm was shown to be the largest user of methyl bromide in the West Bank, consuming around 150 tons per year. Farmers are not aware that through their actions, large quantities of methyl bromide are vented to the atmosphere, causing depletion of the ozone layer which protects the earth from the ultraviolet (UV) solar radiation. It is estimated that bromine from methyl bromide is 50 times more destructive to the ozone layer, atom for atom, than chlorine atoms in the Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Increased UV light penetration increases the incidence of skin cancer, most common in people exposed to sunlight for extended periods, such as farmers. Methyl bromide is extremely toxic. If inhaled it can cause acute and chronic respiratory problems. It is also thought to be associated with incidences of skin burns, damage to the immune system, neurological disorder and even death (Clark, 1994; O’Brien, 1992).

Moreover, the earth’s food chain, which relies on the support of sunlight in food production is also affected by changes in UV exposure. Increased intensity reduces plant production, and therefore threatens both human life whom depends on these plants for nutrition (Clark, 1994; Ishtayia, 1995).

The Montreal Protocol, an international agreement to phase out of ozone depleting substances, aimed to achieve a global phase-out of methyl bromide in 1995. Unfortunately, the regime gives the developing countries an additional 10 years to use this chemical. Producers and users of methyl bromide argue that a phase-out will be economically disastrous, ignoring the damage it will have on human health and on the environment. The Ministry of Environment in Israel appointed a task force in 1993 to study possible alternatives for this product in Israel. They issued a report in 1994 which includes recommendations and fast actions to eliminate the use of methyl bromide (Gabbay, 1994). Without deliberate action, methyl bromide will continue to be used until 2005 in the West Bank, adding more pollution to the environmental and human health.

A declaration calling for urgent funding and information on alternatives to methyl bromide which had been sponsored by several developing countries and supported by a number of Non-Governmental Organizations (including the Pesticides Action Network (PAN) North America regional center), was not introduced due to intense pressure by the representatives of Methyl bromide companies based in US, Israel and Japan. On the other hand, Israel and the Palestinians have agreed through the Oslo II Interim Agreement to cooperate in implementing internationally accepted principles and standards to protect the ozone layer.

Sulfur

Sulfur is considered the oldest effective pesticide still in use today. It is popular among farmers because of its low toxicity to humans. It is used widely as fungicide and sometimes as miticide. Sulfur is less toxic to humans than many conventional synthetic fungicides and miticides, although it is a strong irritant and direct contact with skin and eyes should be avoided (Safi, 1994; Olkowski, 1991).

Sulfur compounds are used mainly in the Hebron district, which consumes 50 tons per year. It is spread to control fungal diseases in grapes and rainfed vegetables such as tomato, snake cucumber, squash, cucumber, melon and muskmelon. The Ramallah district uses nine tons of sulfur while the Nablus district uses only seven tons, sprayed mainly on grapes.

Pesticide handling and usage

Farmers practicing irrigated agriculture in the Tulkarm, Jenin and Jericho districts lack knowledge of the safety precautions needed in the usage and handling of pesticides. They are the largest consumers of pesticides in the West Bank nd Gaza Strip. The use of concentrated solutions above the recommended dose and the inappropriate storage and disposal of pesticides are common problems among the surveyed farmers. Some farmers believe that they have developed immunity to pesticides and that there is no possibility of chronic effects after a long time of exposure to chemicals. This is because they have not seen any apparent effect from pesticides usage.

Many farmers attempt to increase their yield by increasing the amount of pesticides applied. They either increase the application frequency or apply pesticiddose above the recommended level. These practices reduce the effectiveness of pesticides as excessive amounts of pesticides cause damage to the beneficial microorganisms in the soil and reduce the natural enemies of the pests.

Farmers do not wear protective clothes and gear while spraying, leading to the exposure of lungs and skin to damaging chemicals. Spraying equipment is old and often leaks, often causing skin injuries upon contact. Excessive exposure is not restricted to those spraying the solution (often women and children), but affects others nearby as well. Pesticide-coated clothes enter the home and spread contamination to other family members since they are washed with the family laundry.

Pesticide labels may not contain appropriate instructions. If they do exist, they are typically written in Hebrew; a language that most farmers can not read. The case is different in Israel where pesticide containers are labelled with all necessary information.

Unused pesticides, empty pesticide containers and waste generated from pesticide industries are considered hazardous waste that poses a threat to the environment and the public health. This type of waste requires a special care in disposal so as to protect the soil, water resources and public health. In the West Bank, most of the pesticide wastes are generated in the farm from excess pesticide and empty containers. ARIJ study shows that 52% of the farmers dispose of the excess pesticide solution by pouring it onto the soil, and 90% dispose of the empty containers randomly in the farm or adjacent springs (Saleh, et al, 1995). A study to estimate the quantities of this type of toxic waste is needed. In addition, a program to raise awareness among farmers and agricultural engineers about hazardous effects of pesticides has to be initiated. In Israel, the generated toxic waste from pesticides is very high, amounted to 13,789 tons in the 1994.

Pesticide and wildlife

Pesticides are potentially hazardous not only to human health, but also to other living beings. Damage to the ecosystem may itself lead to reduced agricultural production, decreased quality of the environment and also to economic losses in fields other than agriculture. The balance between the benefits of pesticide use and their negative side effects has to be evaluated in each agricultural setting and in each vector control program.

Pesticides were reported to cause a decline in the number of local birds and animals due to changes in agricultural practices in Palestine (Ishtayia, 1995). The increased use of pesticides negatively impacts the health of birds, wild and domestic animals by causing depression of cholinesterase and reduction of the oxidation reactions. Subjection to low levels of pesticides for a long period of time interferes the natural patterns of behaviour required for survival. For example, as a result of exposure to pesticides, falcons are laying eggs with thinner shells, which are easily broken during incubation. Nesting occurs late in the season. The following paragraphs include some examples of local birds and animals affected by pesticides use:

Raptors

The use of Organochlorines including DDT at the end of the World War II had a detrimental effect on raptors, which are birds of prey feeding upon smaller animals. Raptors receive especially high dosages of these toxins because pesticides often accumulate in the bodies of smaller animals.

In 1950s, seeds coated with thallium sulfate were used to control rodents especially the Lernat vole (Microtus guetheri) and Tristram’s jird (Mus musculus). Of the 39 species of raptors known in Palestine, 37 species have declined or been extinguished. The short-toed eagle (Circaetus gallicus) has survived due to his absence in the period of pesticide spraying in the winter and his dependency on reptiles as a source of food. This also was the case for the Hoppy (Falco subbuteo), which migrates in the winter and returns back in May for reproduction. Table (37) includes the bird species, which reproduce in the West Bank and have been affected from pesticide poisoning.

Table 37: Rare and Distinct Raptor Species in Palestine

Black kite	Milvus migrans
Griffon vulture	Gyps fulvus
long- leggedd buzzard	Buteo rufinus
Bonelli’s eagle	Hieraaetus fasciatus
Egyptian vulture	Neophron percnopterus
Kestrel	Falco tinnunculus
Lesser kestrel	Falco naumanni
Lanner falcon	Falco biarmicus
Spotted eagle	Aquila clanga
Peregrine	Falco peregrinus brookei
Black eagle	Aquila verreauxi
White-tailed eagle	Haliaeetus albicilla
Bearded vulture	Cypaetus barbatus

Source: Ishtayia, 1995

The thallium sulfate pesticide, which was once widely used in the West Bank, greatly affects the population of the winter raptors such as Sparrow-hawk (Accipiter nisus). This species disappeared many years ago. The disappearance of certain raptors feeding on birds such as Sparrow-hawk had resulted in an increase in the population of many birds such as Palm dove Streptopelia senegalensis, Yellow-vented bulbul (Pycnonotus xanthopygos), Syrian woodpecker (Dendrocopus syriacus), European black bird (Turdus merula) and Roller (Coracias garrulus).

Raptors feeding on insects such as Lesser kestrel and Scops owl (Otus scopus) have also been exposed to DDT and other insecticides that break down slowly. Banning the use of DDT and other chlorinated hydrocarbons helped in the revival of some raptor species. The Kestrel population has enjoyed an especially successful recovery.

Insect-feeding birds

Birds were poisoned from eating insects sprayed with insecticides, especially those species living near residential areas or fields. Table (38) shows which insect feeding birds in Palestine were most greatly affected.

Table 38: Rare and Distinct Insect Feeding Bird Species in Palestine

The swallow	Hirundo rustica
The red- rumped swallow	Hirundo daurica
The white throat	Sylvia communis
The rufous bush robin	Cercotrichas galactotes
The masked shrike	Lanius nubicus
The spotted flycatcher	Muscicapa striata
The roller	Coracias garrulus
The bee-eater	Merops apiaster
The Egyptian nightjar	Caprimulgus aegypticus

Source: Ishtayia,. 1995

Bats

Thousands of bats in Palestine have been injured by pesticide use. In the 1950s, the population of 28 species declined very rapidly because of pesticide consumption. Many insect-eating bats were poisoned, especially through ingestion of night butterflies, which had been sprayed with insecticides. This was especially true in the cultivated areas of middle and northern Palestine where farming is most intense.

At one time, fruit eating bats (Rousetus aegyptiacus) were considered to be pests. To control the damage, they were perceived to produce, caves were fumigated with Ethylene Dibromide or sprayed with Lindan to reduce the population. Later, it was observed that their impact on fruit crops was minimal, and the spraying was stopped. Some particularly resilient species such as Rousetus aegyptiacus and Pipistrellus bodenheimeri, have survived quite well.

Carnivorous mammals

Carnivorous mammals have been subjected to poisoning by pesticides as well. For example, the Jackels (Canis aureus) were thought to damage the plastic covers used for agriculture. For this reason, farmers used birds, which were poisoned with 1081-Fluoracitamid to kill the Jackels. This was common practice especially in the middle parts of Palestine, despite the fact that Jackels were protected under the Wild Animal Protection Law of 1954.

Many other species have been also affected such as the Wolf (Canis lupus), the Common Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes), the Egyptian Mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon), the Jungle Cat (Felis chaus) and the Wild Cat (Felis sylvestris). The populations of these species have recovered in past few years as their exposure to toxic chemicals has decreased. This is true for all of the species named above except for the wolf whose population remains low and continues to be subjected to illegal poisoning and destruction, as these animals are believed to attack the livestock. It is likely that the wolf populatiwill become extinct in the near future (Ishtayia, 1995).

The problem of pest resistance

Expansion of farming and introduction of new varieties of crops have resulted in the appearance of many new pests. To combat these, a variety of new pesticides were introduced into the market. At first, pesticides were successful; later pests started to show resistance to these pesticides. At this point, farmers chose to increase the dose of pesticides to increase the effectiveness. Their objective was however not fulfilled.

Usually, the concentration of pesticides recommended on the pesticide label does not cause 100% mortality to the target pests. If only 90% of insects are killed, the remaining 10% will form the next generation. This concentration was not sufficiently high to kill the 10% that has developed a natural resistance to the chemicals. By continuous application of pesticides, the most resistant specimen will be selected for reproduction in a vicious cycle that renders pesticide use less and less effective.

Pests are able to acquire "cross resistance" which enables the resistant species to survive after exposure to a related pesticide. For example Lindan resistant mosquitoes are also resistant to Dieldrin. Cross-resistance resulted from a common detoxification system or from target-site insensitivity. Pests are also able to show "multiple resistance" in which pests become resistant to a variety of classes of pesticides. For example, insects resistant to DDT are also resistant to unrelated pyrethroides. Evidently insects can maintain resistance even if not sprayed for ten years or more since the residual inheritance persists in the genome causing a strain of insect to regain its resistance when the pesticide is reapplied. Insect population, such as the white fly, reappears very rapidly in the West Bank and becomes resistant to all kinds of pesticides.

Land Degradation and Desertification

Livestock is a very important source of income to Bedouins and farmers and plays a major role in the meat supply. The Bedouins, have problems grazing their sheep and goats. The creeping of urban areas and cultivated lands towards the wilderness, range-lands and natural pastures in addition to land restrictions by Israel have resulted in intensive grazing on limited areas of the West Bank and Gaza Strip. The number of sheep and goats per area has increased significantly. It is estimated that the number of goats and sheep has increased by over 25% since 1975 (ARIJ, 1995).

The signs of overgrazing in natural grazing areas and rangelands have started to appear, especially in areas where rainfall is limited. Unwanted plants now tend to dominate beneficial ones. The most clear example is the Eastern Slopes, where overgrazing is a very serious problem. The carrying capacity of this area is estimated at 35,000 heads of sheep and goats while currently, 200,000 heads and more are grazing in the area accessible for Palestinians.

Intensive grazing has resulted in a decrease in the biomass of green cover and the loss of biodiversity. With time, area of bare soils and rocks increases while soil fertility decreases, resulting in more wind and runoff erosions. The incidence of severe erosion encourages the appearance of drought climate and the desertification of lands.

Intensive grazing is highest in spring (during the flowering and fruiting stages) when it is the main feed source until crop residues become available after harvest in early summer. This lead to the reduction of seed regeneration of the most valuable species, therefore plant populations, species numbers, also the biomass of vegetation cover is severely reduced. This reduction in plant cover leads, in turn, to decreased infiltration and retention of rainwater into the ground and therefore increased soil erosion. Thus, the carrying capacity of the land is permanently downgraded.

Many grasses and forages have been depleted and nearly lost, especially in the case of species belonging to the Papilionaceae family (Vicia spp., Vicia Palastinaea, and Trifolium spp.) and Gramineae family (Hordeum spp.).

Hebron district is a good example where an intensive year round grazing is taking place especially in the wilderness area of the district (Eastern Slopes). This has resulted in the loss of many beneficial species of range plants, and the degradation of the vegetative biomass. The intensity of grazing has been especially high as only 15 % of the grazing area has been left open to herders after 1967. Species which are predominant in the eastern slopes are herb plant species and spiny bushes such as Sarcopoterium spinosum (thorny burnet), which are generally of low nutritional value and grazed only with difficulty by goats (photo). It’s competitive plants disappear due to their high grazing. The remaining 85% of this wilderness is still off limits to Palestinians, as they are declared closed military areas by Israel. More information about this issue is introduced in chapter twelve.

Grazing in Gaza Strip is mainly practiced by cattle from nomadic Bedouins from Negev and Sinai earlier who frequented the area and settled periodically in the Gaza Strip. Camels from caravans passing in the narrow coastal zone might have led to some overgrazing at places and occasional destruction of dune vegetation.

Climatic Change

Changes in climatic patterns, is a crucial factor in reshaping ecology. These changes may magnify the pressure on wildlife in the region. There are several possible impacts of the climatic change on this area. The most powerful impact is on agriculture and desertification. These impacts have the greatest influence on the south-eastern parts of the West Bank that already have climatic stresses such as low amounts of the rainfall and high temperatures. There is however, botanical-archaeological evidence indicating, on the basis of changes in the distribution patterns of various woody plant species, that over the past 5,000 years the climate of Palestine has become gradually drier and warmer (Waisel, 1986). This may promote desertification and species loss leading to a reduction in the global biodiversity (Obasi, 1996; Pellow, 1996).

Political Conflict

Palestinians are unable to tackle the issue of biodiversity in politically-induced effects in the West Bank and Gaza Strip because of inequalities in the political situation and denied sovereignty over land and natural resources. Israel retains control over nearly 74% of the West Bank, an area, which remains occupied and essentially unavailable to the Palestinian community. On this area, expansion of Israeli colonies, roads, colonies infrastructure and military bases are depriving wildlife open areas needed for its conservation. The Israeli built-up areas slice through natural areas forever changing their character. Declared nature reserves and green areas are often used for expansion of Israeli colonies and other military activities. Forty percent of the West Bank and 85% of the Eastern Slopes continues to be a closed and declared as military zone. Such areas are off-limit to Palestinian Bedouins, shepherds and scientists who need to study the status of plants and animal life within the closed area. Palestinians cannot develop plans for protecting, managing and promoting diversity when the land is out of their control (Isaac, 1995).

Hunting and Destruction of Habitat

The nich concept implies that each animal plays a specific role in its environment. The role of species is important in maintaining the state of homeostasis that any healthy ecosystem enjoys. However, if the rate of extinction was low, the role the extinct species performed can be compensated by other species occupying similar niches. Many of the species appearing in the historical record are now extinct or threatened. The main factors that led to the animal extinction are both natural, accounting for 25% of extinction incidents, and human caused, accounting for 75% of extinction incidents (Ishtayia, 1995). However, human actions have recently greatly increased the rate of extinction to levels that the nature cannot compensate. For example, 73 species ofmammals and 120 species of birds became extinct between the years of 1801 and 1950. This high rate of extinction threatens the dynamic balance, which the nature enjoys with unpredictable consequences. The major factors impacting Palestinian fauna are hunting and habitat destruction.

Hunting in Palestine was and still unsupervised. Laws concerning hunting were not available in Palestine especially during the Ottoman and the First World War periods. Although the British mandate institutionalized several laws to protect animals, these laws were not effective and improperly enforced. Israel legislated new law for wild states protection in 1955. This law demands “the protection and preservation of wild animals, the encouragement of their propagation, and their rescue from fires or other disasters of nature. Hunting protected animals is prohibited” (The Union for Environment Defense, 1993).

The Israeli law and the prohibition of using weapons in the West Bank and Gaza Strip helped in reducing hunting of wild animals. Hunting by nets and traps did not stop but continued at a less rate than before. Recently, and after the coming of the Palestinian Authority, hunters reappeared, especially in area A without taking any consideration to the damages they cause to the wild life. A prime example is the over-hunting of the Roe Deer in the West Bank.

During the last few centuries, and due to the intensive hunting, many vertebrates disappeared from Palestine (Table 39). The Tiger Panthera Pardus nimr is still living in Jerusalem desert and the Negev in a protective status (Ilani, 1979). Not only hunting, but also deforestation, desertification and overgrazing have prevented the deer from living in appropriate environments. Hunting has also caused the nearly extinction of the green and logger head turtles Chelonia mydas and Caretta caretta. During the years 1920 and 1930, approximately 30,000 of these turtles were killed along the Mediterranean beaches (Sela, 1979). In 1985, only 14 turtle nests were discovered on the Palestinian beach along the Mediterranean Sea.

Table 39: Extinct Vertebrates as a Result of the Intensive Hunting in Palestine.

Scientific Name	English Name	Status
Acinonyx jubatus	Cheetah	Extinct
Capreolus capreolus	Roe deer	Extinct
Dama mesopotamica persian	Fallow deer	Extinct
Equus hemionus hemionus	Syrian onager	Extinct
Oryx leucoryx	Arabian oryx	Extinct
Panthera pardus nimr	Arabian leoprad	Endangered
Struthio Camelous syriacus	Syrian ostrich	Extinct
Ursus arctus syraicus	Syrian brown bear	Extinct

Source: Ishtayia, 1995.

Birds, especially resident ones, were also substantially reduced. However, international protection of bird migration routes is nowadays high on the agenda 21 for nature conservation of many states. International cooperation and coordination of regional initiatives in this respect are also building up. Palestine, as part, plays a role as a stopover and migration route for large number of migratory birds, yet lacks legislation to protect wildlife.

Dolphins are regularly reported but are far less common than in the western Mediterranean Sea. hunting and egg collection of marine turtles, Caretta caretta and Chelonia mydas have brougth these species to the brink of extinction in these waters. The past status of the Monk Seal Monachus monachus remains unclear, but it might have had a more common appearance than nowadays, with only a very rare recording. Nile waterworks, motorized fishing and construction of harbours, breakwaters etc. are all fairly recent development affecting the coastal marine environment.

Exploitation of wildlife habitat by human, such as deforestation, drying of marches and oasis, and other similar acts, reduces the carrying capacity of the ecosystem, and renders it more vulnerable. Also, human exploitation of certain plant species, for food purpose as an example, may cause the extinction of these plants and the animals depending on that exploited species.